General+Science+Notes

Back == =__Chapter 1 Section 1 Motion__=

__Motion__ - an object is in motion when it changes **position** relative to another object.


 * The other object is referred to as a **reference point**
 * Reference points must be stationary

__Speed__ - is the distance an object travels over a given period of time


 * //Distance divided by time gives you speed//
 * Units are usually m/s (meters per second)

__Velocity__ - is the speed of an object and the direction the object is moving


 * An objects velocity can change only if the object's speed or direction change

__Acceleration__ - Is defined as the rate in which velocity changes over time.


 * An increase in speed is called **positive acceleration**
 * A decrease in speed is called **negative acceleration or deacceleration**
 * Three ways in which an object can accelerate
 * 1) Speed up
 * 2) Slow down
 * 3) Change direction


 * **Centripetal acceleration** - the acceleration that occurs when an object is moving in a circular motion

=__Chapter 1 Section 2 What is Force?__= Force - is a push or a pull
 * Is measured in Newtons (N)
 * 1N = kg ˚ m/s/s
 * Net Force is the combination of the forces acting on the object

=__Chapter 1 Section 3 Friction: A Force that Opposes Motion__=
 * = Balanced Forces ||= Unbalanced Forces ||
 * = No movement ||= Movement ||
 * = Net force = 0 ||= Net force does not equal 0 ||
 * Friction** - is a force between two objects that opposes motion

Two types of friction
 * 1) Static - the friction between non-moving objects
 * 2) Kinetic - the friction between moving objects
 * 3) Rolling friction
 * 4) Sliding friction
 * 5) Fluid friction - Air resistance
 * **Fluid**- anything that can flow
 * Gases
 * Liquids

Two ways to reduce the amount of friction include
 * 1) Lubricating the surface (oils, wax, grease)
 * 2) Keep the object clean

Two ways to increase friction
 * 1) Change the surface texture
 * 2) The force applied to the objects

=__Chapter 1 Section 4 Gravity: A Force of Attraction__=


 * Gravity** - is a force of attraction between objects that is due to their masses.


 * Law of Universal Gravitation** - All objects in the universe attract each other through gravitational force.
 * The bigger the object's **mass** the greater it's gravitational pull
 * The **greater** the distance between objects the smaller it's gravitational pull


 * Weight** - is a measure of the gravitational force exerted on an object


 * Mass** - a measure of the amount of matter in an object


 * ===Weight=== || ===Mass=== ||
 * Caused by Gravity || Caused by the amount of matter ||
 * Measured in Newtons (N) || Measured in Grams (g) ||
 * Measured with a scale || Measured with a balance ||
 * Can change with location || Does not change with location ||

=__**Chapter 2 Section 1 Gravity and Motion**__=

Acceleration due to the force of gravity is **9.8m/s/s**


 * Air resistance** is the force that opposes the motion of objects in the air.

The amount of air resistance depends on three things: Acceleration stops at **terminal velocity**
 * 1) size (surface area)
 * 2) shape
 * 3) speed of object
 * **Terminal Velocity** - the constant velocity of a falling object when the air resistance is equal to but in the opposite direction as the force of gravity. (The fastest speed an object can reach)


 * Free Fall** - the motion of a body when only the force of gravity is working on it.
 * Only two places an object can be in free fall
 * 1) Space
 * 2) Vacuum


 * Orbiting** - An object traveling around another object.


 * Centripetal Force** - the unbalanced force that causes objects to move in a circular path
 * means "toward the center"


 * Projectile** - Any object that is launched


 * Projectile Motion takes one of two paths, but always produces a **curved**path
 * 1) Vertical
 * 2) Horizontal

=__Chapter 2 Section 2 Newton's Laws of Motion__= Newton's First Law of Motion - **Law of Inertia**
 * An object at rest remains at rest, and an object in motion remains in motion at a constant speed and in a straight line unless acted upon by an outside force.


 * Inertia** - the tendency of an object to resist being moved or have its speed or direction changed.
 * The amount of inertia an object has determined by it's mass. The more mass the more inertia and vice versa.


 * Newton's Second Law of Motion**


 * The acceleration of an object depends on the mass of the object and the amount of force applied.

Newton's Third Law of Motion - **Action Reaction**
 * Whenever one object exerts a force on a second object, the second object exerts an equal and opposite force on the first object.
 * forces always act in pairs

=__Chapter 2 Section 3__=


 * Momentum** - a quantity defined as the product of the mass and velocity of an object
 * //p=mv//
 * units for momentum are (kg * m/s/s)
 * Law of Conservation of Momentum -** states that any time objects collide, the total amount of momentum stays the same.
 * momentum is transferred from one object to another object in a collision
 * a smaller object can have a greater momentum as compared to a larger object if the smaller object has a greater velocity
 * the law of conservation of momentum is very much like Newton's Third law of Motion

=__Chapter 3 Section 1 Fluids and Pressure__=


 * Fluid** - Any material that can flow and takes the shape of its container
 * 1) Liquids
 * 2) Gases
 * All fluids exert pressure


 * Pressure** - the amount exerted per unit area of a surface
 * the unit for pressure is the **Pascal** (Pa)
 * 1 Pa = N/m/m
 * Pascal** - the SI unit of pressure
 * Atmosphere** - is the layer of nitrogen, oxygen, and other gases that surrounds the Earth.
 * **Atmospheric Pressure** - the pressure caused by the weight of the atmosphere
 * Pressure can vary with depth and elevation
 * The deeper you go in water the greater the pressure will be
 * The higher in the atmosphere you go the less pressure there is
 * The density of the fluid also plays a factor in the amount of pressure
 * **Density** - is the amount of mass in a given volume
 * Water is about 1,000 times more dense than air
 * Pressure always moves from **higher to lower**

=__Chapter 3 Section 2 Buoyant Force__=


 * Buoyant Force -** The upward force that keeps an object immersed in or floating on a liquid.


 * Since pressure increases with depth, the buoyant force is always greater on the bottom of an object.


 * Archimedes' principl**e - The principle that states that the buoyant force on an object in a fluid is an upward force equal to the weight of the volume of fluid that the object displaces.
 * Displaces means to move out of the space the object is going to occupy
 * An object in a fluid will sink if its weight is greater than the buoyant force (the weight of the object it displaces)
 * An object floats only when the buoyant force on the object is equal to the object's weight
 * Positively Buoyant - Floats
 * Negatively Buoyant - Sinks
 * Neutrally Buoyant - Can move up or down within the water (Fish, submarine, SCUBA divers)
 * Fish do this by means of a swim bladder
 * Submarines by means of a ballast tank

The density of a material can affect its buoyancy


 * Density** can be calculated by dividing the mass it volume

Density is a **characteristic property** which means it cannot be changed, but you can change the overall density by
 * 1) Changing Shape
 * 2) Changing Mass (Swim bladders, ballast tanks)
 * 3) Changing Volume

=__Chapter 3 Section 3 Fluids and Motion__=


 * Bernoulli's principle** - The principle that states that the pressure in a fluid decreases as the fluid's velocity increases.


 * Bernoulli's principle is responsible for allowing **flight**
 * **Factors that affect flight**
 * 1) **Lift -** An upward force on an object that moves in a fluid
 * 2) **Thrus**t - The pushing or pulling force exerted by the engine of an aircraft or rocket
 * 3) **Drag** - A force parallel tot he velocity of the flow; it opposes the direction of an aircraft


 * Turbulence** - An irregular or unpredictable flow of fluids


 * Pascal's Principle** - The principle that states that a fluid in equilibrium contained in a vessel exerts a pressure of equal intensity in all directions


 * Pascal's principle is responsible for a hydraulic device
 * Hydraulic Device uses pascal's principle to move or lift object
 * Hydraulic devices multiply forces (car brakes) because it is often a smaller area pressing on the fluid over a larger area.

=**__Chapter 4 Section 1 Work and Power__**=


 * Work -** The transfer of energy to an object by using a force that causes that object to move in the same direction as the force.


 * Work is done on an object if two things happen
 * 1) the object moves as a force is applied
 * 2) the direction of the object's motion is the same as the direction of the force


 * Work can be calculated:
 * Units for work will be the Newton meter **(Nm)** or Joule **(J)**
 * Work can be done in all different times which is called **Power**
 * **Power** is the rate at which work is done



=**__Chapter 4 Section 2 What is a Machine?__**=


 * Machine** - A device that helps make doing work easier.

Machines make work easier by: Two different types of work:
 * 1) Increasing the distance
 * 2) Changing the direction of your force
 * 3) Multiplying your force
 * 1) **Work input** - the work you do on a machine (input force)
 * 2) **Work output**- the work done by the machine (output force)
 * **Work output can never be greater than work input**
 * Machine provide a Mechanical Advantage - The number of time a machine multiples your force
 * Two types of mechanical advantage
 * 1) **Actual Mechanical Advantage (AMA)** - the mechanical advantage of a machine with __friction__ and __gravity__
 * 2) **Ideal Mechanical Advantage (IMA)** - the mechanical advantage of the machine without __friction__ or __gravity__
 * //Mechanical Advantage is calculated by dividing the output force by the input force//
 * [[image:Screen_shot_2010-12-14_at_10.54.17_AM.png]] ||


 * Mechanical efficiency** - a quantity, expressed as a percentage, that measure the ratio of work output to work input. Tells you how good a machine in for that job.


 * //Mechanical efficiency is calculated by dividing the work output by the work input and multiplying by 100%//
 * An ideal machine would have a 100% efficiency, but because of __friction__ and __gravity__, that is impossible.

=**__Chapter 4 Section 3 Types of Machines__**=

There are two different type of machines:
 * 1) Simple Machines
 * 2) Compound Machines - combination of two or more machines

There are six simple machines with a possible seventh: Lever and fulcrum
 * 1) lever and fulcrum
 * 2) wheel and axle
 * 3) pulley
 * 4) gears
 * 5) wedge - inclined plane that is
 * 6) screw - a wedge with an inclined plane wrapped around it
 * 7) Inclined Plane - Stays stationary
 * the lever is a bar that pivots around a fixed point (fulcrum)
 * there are three classes of lever based on the location of the fulcrum, the load, and the input force
 * 1st class lever
 * 2nd class lever
 * 3rd class lever

Pulleys - a simple machine that has a grooved wheel that holds a cable or rope
 * Change the direction of your force
 * Three types of pulleys or pulley systems
 * Movable pulley
 * Fixed
 * Block and Tackles - a system consisting of a movable and fixed pulley used together

Wheel and Axle - a simple machine consisting of two circular objects of different sizes
 * Large circle - Wheel
 * Smaller circle - Axle
 * Mechanical advantage of a wheel and axle is by //dividing the radius of the wheel by the radius of the axle//

=__**Chapter 5 Section 1 What is Energy?**__=


 * **Energy** - is the ability to do work

__Three types of energy:__ 1. **Kinetic** - the energy of an object that is due to the motion of the object

2. **Potential** -the energy that an object has of the,, or condition of the object

3. **Mechanical** - the amount of work an object can do because of the object's kinetic and potential energies

Other forms of Energy:
 * **thermal** - is all of the kinetic energy due to the random motion of the particles that make up man object
 * **chemical** - is the energy of a compound that changes as its atoms are arranged
 * **electrical** - is the energy of moving electrons
 * **sound**
 * **geothermal -** is the energy from inside the Earth
 * **light** - is produced by the vibrations of electrically charged particles
 * **nuclear**- the energy that comes fromc hanges in the nucleus
 * __fission__ - is used to generate electrical energy at the nuclear power plants

=**__Chapter 5 Section 2 Energy Conversions__**=


 * Energy Conversions** - is a change from one form of energy to another


 * All energy begins with the __**sun**__
 * Used by plants in __**photosynthesis**__

=__**Chapter 5 Section 3 Conservation of Energy**__=


 * Friction** - is a force that opposes motion between two surfaces that are touching.


 * Energy is conserved within a closed system
 * __Closed System__ - is a group of objects that transfer energy only to each other


 * Law of Conservation of Energy** - the law states that energy cannot be created or destroyed but can be changed from one form to another
 * No conversion of energy can take place without thermal energy


 * Energy efficiency** - a comparison of the amount of energy before a conversion with the amount of useful energy after a conversion.

=__**Chapter 5 Section 4 Energy Resources**__=

__**Two types of resources:**__
 * 1) Renewable - resources that can be replaced relatively quickly
 * 2) Nonrenewable - resources that can be replaced over an extremely long period of time

Renewable resources include:
 * water
 * wind
 * solar
 * geothermal
 * wood

Nonrenewable resources include: =**__Chapter 6 Section 1 What is Temperature?__**=
 * The fossil fuels - energy resources that are formed from burried remains of plants and animals that lived millions of years ago
 * Coal
 * Oil
 * Natural Gas


 * Temperature -** is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in an object


 * The faster the particles are moving the more kinetic energy an object has - the higher the temperature
 * The slower the particles are moving the less kinetic energy an object has - the lower the temperature

Temperature is measure with a device called a __thermometer__.
 * a thermometer works because of **thermal expansion** - an increase in the size of a substance in response to an increase in the temperature of the substance

T__hree scales used to measure temperature:__
 * 1) **Fahrenheit (˚F)**
 * 2) Boiling temperature of water 212˚F
 * 3) Freezing temperature of water 32˚
 * 4) **Celsius (˚C)**
 * 5) Boiling temperature of water 100˚C
 * 6) Freezing temperature of water 0˚C
 * 7) **Kelvin (˚K)**
 * 8) Boiling temperature of water 373˚K
 * 9) Freezing temperature of water 273˚K
 * 10) Official SI temperature scale
 * 11) lowest temperature on the Kelvin scale is 0˚K which is __absolute zero__
 * **Absolute zero**- the temperature at which molecular energy is at a minimum (no particle movement exists)
 * 0˚K
 * -273.16˚C
 * -459˚F
 * Absolute zero is impossible to reach due to energy's ability to transfer from hot to cold



=__**Chapter 6 Section 2 What is Heat?**__=


 * Heat** - is the energy transferred between objects at different temperatures


 * thermal energy is always the form of energy that is transferred
 * **thermal energy** is the total kinetic energy of the particles that make up a substance
 * the more particles there are in a substance the greater the thermal energy of that substance
 * objects will continue to transfer heat when they are in contact until they reach the same temperature

__Three ways to transfer thermal energy:__
 * 1) **Conduction**- the transfer of thermal energy through direct contact
 * 2) **Convection** - the transfer of thermal energy by the circulation or movement of a liquid or gas
 * 3) **Radiation** - the transfer of energy as electromagnetic waves


 * Thermal Conductor** - a material through which energy can be transferred as heat
 * metals


 * Thermal Conductivity** - is the rate at which a substance conducts thermal energy


 * Thermal Insulator** - a material that reduces or prevents the transfer of heat
 * cardboard, wood


 * Convection current** - the circular motion of liquids or gases due to the density differences that result from temperature differences

=__**Chapter 6 Section 3 Matter and Heat**__=
 * Specific Heat** - is the amount of energy to change the temperature of 1kg of a substance by 1˚C.


 * States of Matter** - the physical forms of matter
 * solids
 * liquids
 * gas
 * the particle make up of each object will determine the state of matter.

Change of State - Change of a substance from one state of matter to another.
 * Melting - Solid to a liquid
 * Freezing - Liquid to a solid
 * Boiling - Liquid to a gas

- Any change in state is simply a __change__ as it is still the same material.

- __Chemical change__ is when one or more substance are converted into an entirely substance with new properties.

=__Chapter 1 Section 1 What is Matter?__=


 * Matter** - is anything that has mass and takes up space


 * Volume** - is the amount of space an object takes up. Can be determined by taking the **length x width x height**

=__Chapter 1 Section 2 Physical Properties__=

Example:
 * Physical Property** - a characteristic of a substance that does not involve a chemical change, such as density, color, or hardness
 * 1) **Thermal Conductivity** - rate at which a substance transfers heat
 * 2) **State** - physical form in which a substance exists, such as solid, liquid, or gas
 * 3) **Density** - is the mass per unit of volume
 * 4) **Solubility** - is the ability of a substance to dissolve in another substance
 * 5) **Ductility** - is the ability of a substance to be pulled into a wire
 * 6) **Malleability** - is the ability of a substance to be rolled into thin sheets


 * Physical change** - a change of matter from one form to another without a change in chemical properties


 * Examples of Physical changes:**

=__**Chapter 1 Section 3 Chemical Properties**__=


 * Chemical properties** - a property of matter that describes a substance's ability to participate in chemical reactions
 * 1) **Flammability** - is the ability of a substance to burn.
 * 2) **Reactivity** - is the ability of two or more substances to combine and form one or more new substances


 * Chemical change** - a change that occurs when one or more substances change into entirely new substances with different properties


 * Examples of Chemical changes:**
 * heat is usually an indication of a chemical change


 * Composition** - is the type of matter that makes up an object and the way that matter is arranged in the object

=__**Chapter 2 Section 1 Three States of Matter**__=


 * States of Matter** - the physical forms of which include solid, liquids, and gas.


 * The particle make-up of the states of matter is what determines what state of matter it is. The particles of solids are packed tightly together and can only vibrate, they cannot move. The particles of a liquid can slide past one another, where as the particles of gas can freely move about. With the ability of the particles to move, they also have a different amount of space between particles.

Two kinds of solids:
 * 1) **Crystalline** - very orderly arrangement of particles
 * 2) **Amorphous** - no special arrangement of particles

Characteristics of a liquid:
 * 1) **Surface tension** - the force that acts on the surface of a liquid
 * 2) **Viscosity** - the resistance of a gas or liquid to flow

=__**Chapter 2 Section 2 Behavior of Gases**__=

Gases behave differently from solids and liquids. Unlike the particles that make up solids and liquids, gas particles have a large amount of empty space between them. The space that gas particles occupy is the gas's volume, which can change because of **temperature** and **pressure**.


 * **Temperature**- a measure of how hot orsomething is, specifically it is the measure of the movement of particles.
 * The **hotter** something is the __faster__ and __further__ apart the particles are moving
 * The **colder** something is the __slower__ and __closer__ together the particles are


 * **Pressure** - the amount of force exerted per unit of area of a surface


 * The cylinders numbered 1 and 2 represent the volume of gas under low pressure where cylinders 3,4,and 5 represent gas under a high pressure. Notice how the volume changes as the pressure exerted on the gas changes.

Scientists found that temperature, pressure, and volume of a gas are linked together. Changing one of the factors changes the other two factors. The relationships between temperature, pressure, and volume are described by gas laws.


 * Boyle's Law** - the law state that the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure of a gas when temperature is constant.
 * as the pressure of a gas increases, the volume decreases by the same amount when the temperature is constant


 * Charles's Law** - the law states that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the temperature of a gas when pressure is constant.
 * if the temperature of gas increaes, then the volume of gas will increase by the same amount when the pressure is constant



=__**Chapter 2 Section 3 Changes of State**__=


 * Change of state** - is the change of a substance from one physical form to another.
 * all changes of state are a physical change
 * the particles of a substance move differently depending on the state of the substance
 * the particles have different amounts of energy depending on the substance
 * to change a substances state you need to add energy or take energy away


 * __Five changes of state:__**
 * 1) **Melting** - the change of state in which a solid becomes a liquid by __adding energy__
 * 2) **Freezing** - the change of state in which a liquid becomes a solid by __removing energy__
 * 3) **Evaporation**- the change of a substance from a liquid to a gas
 * **Boiling** - the conversion of a liquid to a vapor when the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the atmospheric pressure
 * 1) **Condensation** - the change of state from a gas to a solid
 * 2) **Sublimation** - the process in which a solid changes directly to a gas


 * Endothermic - change because energy is gained by the substance as it changes state
 * Exothermic - change because energy is removed from the substance as it changes state

=__**Chapter 3 Section 1 Elements**__=


 * Element** - a substance that cannot be separated or broken down into a simpler substances by chemical means
 * gold, silver, mercury, lead........anything found on the [|periodic table]


 * Pure substance** - a sample of matter, either a single element or a single compound, that has definite chemical and physical properties
 * water, salt, saltwater

***All elements are pure substances, but not all pure substances are elements***


 * __Categories of Elements__**
 * 1) **Metals** - an element that is shiny and that conducts heat and electricity well
 * 2) **Nonmetals** - an element that conducts heat and electricity poorly
 * 3) **Metalloids** - an element that has properties of both metals and nonmetals

=__**Chapter 3 Section 2 Compounds**__=


 * Compound** - a substance made up of atoms of two or more different elements joined by chemical bonds
 * Elements do not randomly join to form compounds. They join in specific **ratios** according to their mass to form compounds.
 * salt, hydrogen peroxide, water
 * compounds can be identified from their chemical properties
 * compounds have their own physical properties
 * the only way to break down a compound is by a **chemical change**

=__**Chapter 3 Section 3 Mixtures**__=


 * Mixture** - a combination of two or more substances that are not chemically combined
 * a mixture is very easy to separate
 * no chemical change happens when creating a mixture
 * each substance in a mixture keeps its identity
 * pepperoni pizza, lucky charms, apples and oranges


 * What are the differences between a compound and a mixture?**


 * Solution** - is a mixture that appears to be a single substance.
 * "best mixed mixture"
 * can be separated
 * koolaid, chocolate milk
 * made up of two parts
 * 1) **solute** - in a solution, the substance that dissolves in the solvent, must be __soluble__ (able to dissolve)
 * 2) **solvent**- in a solution the in which the solute dissolves
 * Water is the universal solvent


 * Concentrations of solutions**

Solutions can be described as being concentrated or dilute? In the example above test tube A is the __most concentrated__ while all the other test tubes are becoming less concentrated or more __diluted__.


 * Concentration** - the amount of a particular substance in a given quantity of a mixture, solution, or ore
 * Concentration can be calculated by taking the grams of solute and dividing it by the milliliters of solvent
 * **solubility** is the ability of one substance to dissolve in another at a given temperature and pressure

__**Three Ways to Make a Solute Dissolve Faster:**__
 * 1) **Mixing** - causes the solute particles to separate from one another and spread out more quickly among the solvent particles
 * 2) **Heating** - causes the particles to move more quickly while the solvent can spread the solute particles out more quickly
 * 3) **Crushing** - increases the solutes amount of surface area exposed tot he solvent

__Other types of mixtures__:
 * **Suspension**- a mixture in which particles of a material are more of less evenly dispersed throughout a liquid or gas
 * The particles are large enough to scatter or block light
 * The particles will settle to the bottom if not continuously mixed or shaken
 * snow globes, salad dressings
 * **Colloids -**a mixture consisting of tiny particles that are dispersed throughout the substance but do not settle out
 * Milk, mayonnaise, gelatin, whipped cream, and stick deodorant

=__Chapter 4 Section 1 Development of Atomic Theory__=

__Atom -__ is the smallest particle in which an element can be divided and still be the same substance Atoms means "uncuttable"


 * Protons - positive charged particles found in the nucleus
 * Neutrons - neutrally charged particles found in the nucleus
 * Electrons - negatively charged particles found in the electron orbitals

=**__Chapter 4 Section 2 The Atom__**=
 * **Atomic Mass Unit** - the unit of mass that describes the mass of an atom or molecule
 * **Atomic number** - the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

Example: The atomic number of Zinc is 30. Zinc has 30 protons in it's nucleus The atomic number of Oxygen is 8. Oxygen has 8 protons in it's nucleus

=__**Chapter 5 Section 1 Arranging the Elements**__=
 * Isotope - an atom that has the same number of protons as other atoms but has different number of neutrons that it is supposed to have.
 * The periodic table of elements was created by a Russian scientist named Dmitri Mendeleev. After much thought and effort Mendeleev arranged the elements in order of increasing atomic mass. Once Dmitri place the elements in order of increasing atomic mass he realized that a pattern had formed.
 * The pattern was **periodic** - happening at regular intervals
 * **Periodic Law** - the law that states that the repeating chemical and physical properties of elements change periodically with the atomic number of elements
 * The Periodic Table of Elements is broken up in classes:
 * Metals
 * Metalloids - sometimes referred to as semiconductors
 * Nonmetals
 * Each element has four pieces of information in its square on the periodic table of elements


 * Periods** - in chemistry, a horizontal row of elements in the periodic table of elements


 * Group** - a vertical column of elements in the periodic table
 * elements in a group share chemical properties, which is why groups are often called **families**

=**__Chapter 5 Section 2 Grouping the Elements__**=

The properties of the elements in a group are similar because the atoms of the elements have the same number of electrons in their outer energy level. Atoms will often take, give, or share electrons with other atoms in order to have a complete set of electrons in their outer energy level. Elements whose atoms undergo such processes are called //reactive// and can combine to form compounds.

Alkali metals - one of the elements of Group 1 of the periodic table. Alkaline-earth metal - one of the elements in group 2 of the periodic table Transition metals - all the elements in groups 3 through 12 Halogens - one of the elements of group 17 of the periodic table Noble Gases - one of the elements of group 18 of the periodic table =__**Chapter 1 Section 1 Everything is Connected**__=


 * Ecology** - is the study of the interactions of organisms with one another and with their environment.

The Environment is made up of two parts:
 * 1) Biotic - describes living factors in the environment
 * 2) Abiotic - describes the nonliving part of the environment, including water, rocks, light, and temperature

__Levels of the environment - Ordered from Biggest to smallest__
 * 1) Biosphere - the part of Earth where life exists
 * 2) Ecosystem - a community of organisms and their abiotic environment
 * 3) Community - all the populations of species that live in the same habitat and interact with each other.
 * 4) Population - a group of organisms of the same species that live in a specific geographical area.
 * __Populations can increase by two means__
 * Birth rate exceeds the death rate
 * **immigration** - new members moving into the current population
 * __Populations can decrease by two means__
 * Death rate exceeds the birth rate
 * **emigration** - members moving out of the current population
 * 1) Organism - a single member of a species

=__**Chapter 1 Section 2 Living Things Need Energy**__=

All energy comes from the sun


 * Organisms that use sunlight directly to make food are called **producers**.
 * They do this through a process called **photosynthesis**

Animals that consume other animals are called **consumers**.
 * 1) Herbivore - an organism that eats only plants
 * 2) Carnivore - an organism that eats animals
 * 3) Omnivore - an organism that eats both plants and animals

There are two other types of consumers, but they are not true consumers as they do not hunt live prey
 * 1) Scavengers - omnivores that eat dead plants and animals
 * 2) Decomposers - organisms that get energy by breaking down dead organisms
 * Decomposers are important because they are nature's recyclers.

__Food Chains and Webs__


 * Food chain** - the pathway of energy transfer through various stages as a result of the feeding patterns of a series of organisms.




 * Food web** - a diagram that shows the feeding relationships between organisms in an ecosystem.

All arrows on a food web or food chain point in the **direction of which the energy flows.** Therefore they show what is being consumed by which animal.


 * Energy Pyramid** - a triangle diagram that shows an ecosystem's loss of energy, which results as energy passes through the ecosystem's food chain.
 * There are less consumers at the top of the pyramid as much of the energy from the bottom level is lost by the time it reaches the top of the pyramid. Many of the animals at the top of the pyramid expend a great deal of energy to attain the energy they need to survive. The lost level of the pyramid has the greatest amount of energy as it is filled with producers who spend almost no energy in attaining the energy they need to live from the sun.



=__**Chapter 1 Section 3 Types of Interactions**__=

As organism interact in the environment, some organisms tend to thrive while others struggle to build a population. The size of a population really depends upon the limiting factors.
 * **Limiting factor**- is a resource that is so scare it limits the size of a population.
 * There are four main limiting factors:
 * 1) Food
 * 2) Water
 * 3) Shelter
 * 4) Space

Even if there are plenty of resources (food, water, shelter, and space) in a given area, the area still can only support a certain number of organisms because of the time it takes to replenish the resources. This is called carrying capacity.
 * **Carrying capacity** - the largest population that an environment can support at any given time.

Since every organism needs the same resources to survive, there is a great amount of **competition** in the environment.
 * __Four main ways in which organisms affect one another__
 * 1) **competition** - two or more organisms use the same resources, such as food, water, shelter, or space
 * 2) **predator and prey relationships**
 * 3) Adaptations
 * Predator Adaptations
 * Examples; Speed, claws, coloration
 * Prey Adaptations
 * Examples: warning coloration, camouflage, defensive chemicals
 * 1) **symbiotic relationships**- two different organisms live in close relationship with each other
 * 2) Parasitism - a relationship in which one organism benefits (**parasite**) and the other is harmed (**host**)
 * 3) Commensalism - a relationship between two organisms in which one organism benefits and the other is unaffected - a relationship between two species where both organisms benefit
 * 4) **coevolution -** the evolution of two species due to the mutual influence between them.

=__Chapter 2 Section 1 The Cycles of Matter__=

The water cycle is the movement of water between the oceans, atmosphere, land, and living things.
 * The water cycle has three main ways in which water moves
 * 1) **precipitation** - any form of water that falls to the Earth's surface from the clouds
 * 2) **condensation** - the change of state from a gas to a liquid
 * 3) **evaporation** - the change of a substance from a liquid to a gas


 * Plants release water through a process called **transpiration**




 * The Carbon Cycle -** the exchange of carbon between the environment and living things.
 * Besides water the most common molecules in living things are //organic// molecules, or molecules that contain carbon.
 * **Photosynthesis**- plants use carbon dioxide from air to make sugars
 * Basis of the carbon cycle
 * **Respiration**- sugar molecules are broken down to release energy.
 * This is how carbon is returned to the environment
 * Carbon Dioxide and water are released as byproducts

=__**Chapter 2 Section 2 Ecological Succession**__=

__**Succession**__ - the replacement of one type of community by another at a single place over a period of time.

Secondary succession - the original community regrows through series
 * Primary succession - Example pictured above as the forest begins from bare rock**
 * Takes place when a small community starts to grow in an area where other organisms had not previously lived.
 * The species that move in are called **pioneer species** because they colonize an uninhabited area and that starts the process of succession.


 * Secondary succession is caused when an existing community is destroyed by a natural disaster, such as fire or flood, or when a plot of ground is no longer used for its previous purpose, like a farmer stops farming.




 * The early in the stage of succession the less amount of species growing
 * The later stages lead to more of a variety of species growing
 * As a community matures it may be dominated by well adapted, slow growing //climax species//
 * **Biodiversity** - the variety of species that are present in an area