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__Oceanography__ - literally the description of the marine environment.
 * Includes the study of the water of the ocean, life within it, and the not so solid Earth beneath it.

=**Four main Disciplines of Oceanography**= 1. __Geological Oceanography__ - study of the sea floor 2. __Chemical Oceanography__ - study of the chemical composition and properties of seawater 3. __Physical Oceanography__ - study of the waves, tides, and current; the ocean - atmosphere relationship that influences weather and climate 4. __Biological Oceanography__ - study of various oceanic life forms and their relationships to one another; adaptations to marine environment; and developing sustainable methods of harvesting seafood

=**How are Earth's Ocean's Unique?**=
 * Other disciplines include ocean engineering, marine archeology, and marine policy
 * The oceans are the largest and most prominent features on Earth
 * They are the single most defining feature of our planet
 * Determine where our continents end
 * Shape political boundaries
 * A majority of Earth's geologic features are on the ocean floor
 * Influence weather all over the globe
 * Oceans are lungs of the planet, they remove co2 and replace it with o2 (70% of all Oxygen breathed)
 * Contain the greatest number of living things on the planet.
 * COntain the smallest bacteria to the largest animals (Blue whale)
 * Source of food, minerals, and energy that remains untapped
 * More than half the world's population live in coastal areas near oceans for
 * Mild Climate
 * Inexpensive form of transportation
 * Vast recreational opportunities
 * All results in a dumping ground for much of society's waste


 * More than 50% of the world's population ( 3.2 billion) live long the coastline
 * 80% of Americans live within an hours drive from the Great Lakes or an ocean
 * 8 of 10 largest US cities are in coastal environments
 * About 3600 people move to the coast each day
 * By 2025 as much as 75% of the population is expected to live at the coast
 * It is being proposed that ocean's be used for deep ocean mining and nuclear waste disposal

=**Ocean Circulation**=
 * Ocean currents are masses of ocean water that flow from one place to another
 * They dominate the surfaces of the major oceans
 * Transfer heat from warmer to colder areas on Earth
 * Ocean surface currents drive 1/3 of the energy from the equator to the poles
 * Currents influence the abundance of life in the surface waters by affecting the growth of algae
 * Affect the climate of coastal continental regions
 * water sinks in high latitudes initiating deep currents that help regulate the planet's climate


 * How are Ocean Surface Currents Organized?**
 * Surface currents develop from friction between the ocean and the wind that blows across its surface

Between 0 - 30 degrees latitude - Trade Winds 30 - 60 degrees latitude - Prevailing Westerlies 60 - 90 degrees latitude - Polar Easterlies

1. Gravity 2. Friction 3. Distribution of continents 4. __Coriolis effect__ - A force resulting from the Earth's rotation causing particles in motion to be deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
 * Factors that influence surface currents:**

Three types of waves: 1. __Surface waves__ - caused by the wind 2. __Tidal Waves__ - Caused by the gravitational pull of the moon 3. __Tsunami__ - Caused by seismic activity

=**Tidal waves are divided into three categories**= 1. __Semidiurnal__ which is two high tides per 24 hour period 2. __Diurnal__ tides which are one high tide per 24 hour period 3. __Mixed__ tides which are successive high tides

=**Invertebrates**= • Most multicellular organisms are in Kingdom Animalia because they can move and consume other organisms. • 97 % of all animals are invertebrates

**Phylum Porifera**

 * Sponges – Aggregations of specialized cells
 * No true tissues or organs
 * ** Sessile ** – Living permanently attached to the bottom or some other surface
 * Numerous tiny pores called ** ostia **
 * Pore bearers
 * Sponges demonstrate regeneration
 * Suspension feeders – filter feeders

**Phylum Echinodermata**
1. Reproduction 2. Escape predators
 * Includes Sea Stars, Brittle Stars, Sea Urchins, Sand Dollars, and Sea Cucumbers
 * Spiny Skinned
 * Radial Symmetry
 * Endoskeleton
 * Locomotion is by tube feet and water vascular system
 * Some can go through __autonomy__ (self amputation)
 * Aristotle's Lantern - INtricate system of jaws and muscles
 * regeneration
 * Complete Digestive Tract
 * No dorsal or ventral sides, just an oral side
 * Closed circulatory system

view the following links1. [|starfish feeding]2. [|starfish splitting]3. [|Sea Cucumber defense]4. [|Sea cucumber natural defense]

**Phylum Mollusca**

 * Includes snails, clams, octopuses, and cuttlefish
 * More molluscs in the ocean than any other species
 * **Molluscs have a soft body covered by a** __mantle__ **which secretes the shell protecting most of them**
 * Molluscs have a ventral muscular foot used for locomotion
 * __Radula__ **- which is a ribbon of small teeth used for feeding**
 * **The radula is made of** __chitin__ **a highly resistant carbohydrate**
 * Include classes:
 * 1. Gastropoda - largest and most common - snails**
 * 2. Bivalvia - Made up of two shells - clams**
 * 3. Cephalopoda - specialized in locomotion - octopuses**
 * View the following links**
 * 1. [|Octopus as a predator] 2. [|Octopus camouflage] 3. [|octopus escaping through one inch hole] **
 * 4. [|Octopus disappearing] 5. [|Octopus feeding at night on reef]**

** Phylum Arthropoda **

 * Largest phylum of animals in the world
 * **3 out of 4 animals on Earth are in phylum Arthropoda**
 * **Subphylum Crustacean**
 * **includes crabs, shrimp, and lobsters**
 * **Exoskeleton made of chitin**
 * **Need to molt exoskeleton to grow**
 * **Jointed Legs**
 * * Bilaterally symmetric **


 * [|Mantis Shrimp]**

**__Marine Fish__**
* Fish were the first vertebrates, about 500 million years ago** 1. Great source of protein 2. Fertilizer or chicken feed 3. Used in leather, glue, vitamins, sports, and pets
 * Fish are the most economically important marine organisms

Vertebrate

* Endoskeleton
 * have backbones
 * Characterized by bilateral symmetry

=**__ Classes of fish __**=

** 1. ** **Agnatha**

 * Jawless
 * Feed by suction
 * lack paired fins
 * Lack true vertebrae
 * Feed of dead or dying fish
 * Include hagfish, slime eels, and Lampreys

2. **Chondrichthyes**

 * Cartilaginous fish
 * Skeleton made of cartilage
 * Movable jaws[|(Goblin shark video)]
 * Well armed with teeth
 * Paired lateral fins
 * Sandpaper skin made up of placoid scales

**Sharks**
1. [|Whale Shark] 2. [|Basking Shark]
 * Greatly adapted for fast swimming and predatory feeding
 * Sharks have a [|fusiform body] for easy movement through water
 * Tapered at both ends
 * The caudal fin is heteroceral which means the upper lobe is longer than the lower lobe
 * Usually have two dorsal fins
 * 5 to 7 gill slits
 * the two biggest sharks in the ocean, the [|whale shark]and the basking shark, are both filter feeders
 * Shark populations are in serious danger as people continue to hunt them for fins and skin

**Rays and Skates**

 * Dorsally ventrally flattened bodies
 * Demersal - means they live on the bottom
 * Always have five pairs of gills on the underside over their body
 * Rays give birth to live young (viviparous)
 * Skates give birth to eggs sometimes called "[|Mermaid Purses]" ( oviparous)
 * [|Electric rays]can deliver shocks up to 200 volts

**3. Osteichthyes**

 * The Boney Fish
 * About 96% of all fish and almost half of all vertebrates
 * Cycloid scales - thin, flexible, and overlapping
 * Operculum or gill cover - flap of bony plates that protects the gills
 * [|Homoceral tails]- both lobes generally the same size
 * Swim Bladder - Gas filled sac to control buoyancy
 * [|Lateral Line]- Enables fish to detect vibrations in the water.

**Coloration of Fish**

 * Some can change color to signify their mood or reproduction condition
 * [|Warning coloration]- Using color to advertise they are poisonous or taste bad
 * [|Cryptic coloration]- Blending with the environment "camoflauge"
 * [|Disruptive coloration]- Prescence of stripes. bars, or spots to break up the fishes outline
 * [|Countershading]- Different dorsal and ventral colors used to disguise in open water


 * Behavior**
 * adapt to light and currents
 * find food and shelter
 * avoid predators
 * courtship and reproduction


 * Fish, excluding open water fish (pelagic) are territorial.**
 * Aggressive behavior
 * Bluff
 * raised fins
 * open mouth
 * rapid darting
 * School for protection or travel
 * Bait balls
 * Fish will migrate**
 * Migration is the mass movement from one place to another once a day, once a year, or once a lifetime.
 * Not all migration is lateral, many fish migrate vertically.
 * __**Anadromous**__ - most of life in saltwater but migrate to freshwater to breed
 * Sturgeon, lamprey, smelts, and salmon
 * Salmon spawn in the exact stream of their birth (homing behavior)
 * King salmon (chinook) and the Chum salmon (dog) reach as far inland as Idaho and the headwaters of the yukon river
 * Pacific salmon face destruction of their natural habitat.
 * dams, spawning grounds filled with silt from logging, cattle grazing, rivers polluted by pesticides
 * Columbia river system has lost about 90% of its salmon population
 * Sockeye, King, and Chum have been declared endangered in some rivers
 * Atlantic Salmon population is in serious decline and is currently farmed for food
 * **__Catadromous__** - Breed at sea and migrate to freshwater to grow and mature
 * Freshwater eels - American eels and European eels


 * Marine Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals**
 * All land dwelling vertebrates are called tetrapods "four footed"
 * Evolved from fish that either walked on the bottom or on land between pools of water
 * Required internal air sacs called lungs
 * Amphibians struggled with adapting because they must keep themselves moist and most lay their eggs in water
 * No amphibians are strictly marine


 * Marine Mammals**
 * Warm blooded, homeotherms, or endotherms
 * Hair on their bodies to keep them warm
 * Viviparous - birth live young
 * Produce few but well cared for young
 * Mammary glands to nourish young
 * Include
 * 1) Pinnipeds - sea lions, seals, and walrus
 * 2) Carnivora - sea otter and polar bear
 * 3) Sirenia - Manatees
 * 4) Cetacea - whales, dolphins, and porpoises


 * Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises**
 * Two major differences from fish:**
 * 1) Fluke instead of a cadual tail - up and down movement instead of side to side
 * 2) Blowhole which allows air to the lungs and discharge of water


 * about 90 different species of cetaceans in which all but 5 are marine.

1. Toothless or Baleen 2. Toothed
 * Cetaceans are divided into two groups:**


 * Baleen**
 * fibrous plates which hang from the upper jaw
 * made of keratin same as our hair and nails
 * largest of the whales (in body size)
 * have two blowholes


 * Toothed**
 * contains about 80 species
 * majoritry of diet is squid and fish
 * teeth are adapted to hold prey in its mouth as it is swallowed live
 * the largest toothed whale is the sperm whale - "Moby Dick"
 * the sperm whale and the baleen whales make up the "great whales"


 * Marine Reptiles**
 * About 7000 species
 * Includes lizards, snakes, turtles, and crocodiles
 * cold blooded, poikilotherms, or ectotherms
 * sluggish in the cold
 * keeps them out of cold regions, especially since air temperature fluctuates more than water temperature


 * Sea Turtles**
 * Biggest difference is they cannot retract their head inside their shell
 * legs and forelimbs are modified into flippers
 * 7 species of sea turtles that live primarily warm waters
 * largest is the Leatherback
 * 2m in length and weigh at least 540kg (about 1200 pounds)
 * No solid shell, made up of a series of bones
 * Dive to about 640m (2100 ft)
 * Social Behaviors and Needs**
 * diet consists mostly of jellyfish
 * will eat corals, sponges, crabs, and other molluscs because they have very powerful jaws
 * must return to land to reproduce
 * migrate long distances to lay their eggs on remote sandy beaches
 * turtles regularly cross 1360mi to their feeding grounds (magnetic field)
 * lay between 100 to 160 eggs
 * Sea Snakes**
 * 55 species found in the tropices
 * most are ovoviviparous, giving birth to live young, but some some still lay eggs on shore
 * some of the most venomous of all snakes
 * overexploited for their skins


 * Other Marine Reptiles**
 * **Marine Iguana**
 * found on Galapagos Island
 * expel salt from the water through glands by it nostrils
 * like land reptiles it spends much of its time basking in the sun
 * **Saltwater Crocodiles**
 * mostly found in mangrove swamps
 * can venture into the open ocean
 * can venture into freshwater streams and rivers
 * most aggressive of all marine animals
 * largest on record is 33 feet but average about 20 feet